Scaling Language Models: Methods, Analysis & Insights from Training Gopher
Language modelling provides a step towards intelligent communication systems by harnessing large repositories of written human knowledge to better predict and understand the world. In this paper, we present an analysis of Transformer-based language model performance across a wide range of model scales -- from models with tens of millions of parameters up to a 280 billion parameter model called Gopher. These models are evaluated on 152 diverse tasks, achieving state-of-the-art performance across the majority. Gains from scale are largest in areas such as reading comprehension, fact-checking, and the identification of toxic language, but logical and mathematical reasoning see less benefit. We provide a holistic analysis of the training dataset and model's behaviour, covering the intersection of model scale with bias and toxicity. Finally we discuss the application of language models to AI safety and the mitigation of downstream harms.
PDF Abstract NA 2021 PDFCode
Tasks
Abstract Algebra
Anachronisms
Analogical Similarity
Analytic Entailment
Anatomy
Astronomy
BIG-bench Machine Learning
Business Ethics
Causal Judgment
Checkmate In One
Clinical Knowledge
Code Line Descriptions
College Biology
College Chemistry
College Computer Science
College Mathematics
College Medicine
College Physics
Common Sense Reasoning
Computer Security
Conceptual Physics
Crash Blossom
Crass AI
Dark Humor Detection
Date Understanding
Disambiguation QA
Discourse Marker Prediction
Econometrics
Electrical Engineering
Elementary Mathematics
Emotional Intelligence
Empirical Judgments
English Proverbs
Entailed Polarity
Epistemic Reasoning
Ethics
Evaluating Information Essentiality
Fact Checking
Fantasy Reasoning
FEVER (2-way)
FEVER (3-way)
Figure Of Speech Detection
Formal Fallacies Syllogisms Negation
Formal Logic
General Knowledge
Global Facts
GRE Reading Comprehension
High School Biology
High School Chemistry
High School Computer Science
High School European History
High School Geography
High School Government and Politics
High School Macroeconomics
High School Mathematics
High School Microeconomics
High School Physics
High School Psychology
High School Statistics
High School US History
High School World History
Hindu Knowledge
Human Aging
Human Organs Senses Multiple Choice
Human Sexuality
Hyperbaton
Identify Odd Metapor
Implicatures
Implicit Relations
Intelligent Communication
Intent Recognition
International Law
Irony Identification
Jurisprudence
Known Unknowns
LAMBADA
Language Modelling
Logical Args
Logical Fallacies
Logical Fallacy Detection
Logical Reasoning
Logical Sequence
Logic Grid Puzzle
Management
Marketing
Mathematical Induction
Mathematical Reasoning
Medical Genetics
Memorization
Metaphor Boolean
Miscellaneous
Misconceptions
Moral Disputes
Moral Permissibility
Moral Scenarios
Movie Dialog Same Or Different
Movie Genre Recommendation System
Movie Recommendation
Multiple Choice Question Answering (MCQA)
Multi-task Language Understanding
Natural Questions
Navigate
Nonsense Words Grammar
Novel Concepts
Nutrition
Odd One Out
Penguins In A Table
Philosophy
Phrase Relatedness
Physical Intuition
Physics MC
Prehistory
Presuppositions As NLI
Professional Accounting
Professional Law
Professional Medicine
Professional Psychology
Public Relations
Question Answering
Question Selection
RACE-h
RACE-m
Reading Comprehension
Reasoning About Colored Objects
Riddle Sense
Ruin Names
Sarcasm Detection
Security Studies
Sentence Ambiguity
Sentence Completion
Similarities Abstraction
SNARKS
Sociology
Sports Understanding
StrategyQA
Temporal Sequences
Timedial
TriviaQA
Understanding Fables
US Foreign Policy
Virology
Winowhy
Word Sense Disambiguation
World Religions
Datasets
Introduced in the Paper:
MassiveTextUsed in the Paper:
Pubmed
Natural Questions
MMLU
C4
TriviaQA
test
HellaSwag
FEVER
BoolQ
RACE
PIQA
WebText
WinoGrande
BookCorpus
The Pile
TruthfulQA
BIG-bench
OpenSubtitles
Civil Comments
PG-19
SIQA
Arxiv HEP-TH citation graph
PubMed Cognitive Control Abstracts
USPTO Backgrounds
Curation Corpus
Stack Exchange
Books3
FreeLaw
PhilPapers
| Task | Dataset | Model | Metric Name | Metric Value | Global Rank | Uses Extra Training Data |
Benchmark |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Language Modelling | Arxiv HEP-TH citation graph | Gopher | BPB | 0.662 | # 1 | ||
| Analogical Similarity | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 17.2 | # 2 | ||
| International Law | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 77.7 | # 1 | ||
| High School World History | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 75.1 | # 1 | ||
| High School US History | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 78.9 | # 1 | ||
| High School European History | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 72.1 | # 1 | ||
| TriviaQA | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=64) | Accuracy | 57.1 | # 1 | ||
| Similarities Abstraction | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 81.8 | # 2 | ||
| Natural Questions | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=64) | Accuracy | 28.2 | # 1 | ||
| Miscellaneous | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 75.7 | # 1 | ||
| Global Facts | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 38.0 | # 1 | ||
| General Knowledge | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 93.9 | # 2 | ||
| Sentence Ambiguity | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 69.1 | # 2 | ||
| Misconceptions | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 61.7 | # 2 | ||
| FEVER (3-way) | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=15) | Accuracy | 77.5 | # 1 | ||
| FEVER (2-way) | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=10) | Accuracy | 77.5 | # 1 | ||
| Moral Scenarios | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 40.2 | # 1 | ||
| Moral Permissibility | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 55.1 | # 2 | ||
| Moral Disputes | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 66.8 | # 1 | ||
| Dark Humor Detection | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 83.1 | # 1 | ||
| Understanding Fables | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 39.6 | # 2 | ||
| Timedial | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 50.9 | # 2 | ||
| Riddle Sense | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 68.2 | # 2 | ||
| Irony Identification | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 69.7 | # 2 | ||
| Empirical Judgments | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 52.5 | # 2 | ||
| Discourse Marker Prediction | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 11.7 | # 2 | ||
| Crass AI | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 56.8 | # 4 | ||
| US Foreign Policy | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 81.0 | # 1 | ||
| Sociology | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 84.1 | # 1 | ||
| Security Studies | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 64.9 | # 1 | ||
| Public Relations | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 71.8 | # 1 | ||
| Professional Psychology | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 68.1 | # 1 | ||
| Human Sexuality | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 67.2 | # 1 | ||
| High School Psychology | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 81.8 | # 1 | ||
| High School Microeconomics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 66.4 | # 1 | ||
| High School Macroeconomics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 65.1 | # 1 | ||
| High School Government and Politics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 83.9 | # 1 | ||
| High School Geography | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 76.8 | # 1 | ||
| Physics MC | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 50.9 | # 2 | ||
| High School Computer Science | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 54.0 | # 1 | ||
| High School Chemistry | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 47.8 | # 1 | ||
| Conceptual Physics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 49.4 | # 1 | ||
| Computer Security | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 65.0 | # 1 | ||
| College Chemistry | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 45.0 | # 1 | ||
| RACE-m | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 75.1 | # 1 | ||
| RACE-h | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 71.6 | # 1 | ||
| Question Selection | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 41.4 | # 2 | ||
| Phrase Relatedness | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 81.8 | # 2 | ||
| Nonsense Words Grammar | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 61.4 | # 2 | ||
| Movie Dialog Same Or Different | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 50.7 | # 2 | ||
| LAMBADA | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (zero-shot) | Accuracy | 74.5 | # 2 | ||
| Intent Recognition | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 88.7 | # 2 | ||
| Implicit Relations | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 36.4 | # 2 | ||
| Implicatures | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 62.0 | # 2 | ||
| GRE Reading Comprehension | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 27.3 | # 2 | ||
| Crash Blossom | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 63.6 | # 1 | ||
| Odd One Out | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 32.5 | # 2 | ||
| Identify Odd Metapor | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 38.6 | # 2 | ||
| Business Ethics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 70.0 | # 1 | ||
| BIG-bench Machine Learning | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 41.1 | # 1 | ||
| College Mathematics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 37.0 | # 1 | ||
| High School Statistics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 50 | # 1 | ||
| High School Physics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 33.8 | # 1 | ||
| College Physics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 34.3 | # 1 | ||
| High School Mathematics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 23.7 | # 1 | ||
| Electrical Engineering | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 60 | # 1 | ||
| Econometrics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 43 | # 1 | ||
| College Computer Science | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 49 | # 1 | ||
| High School Biology | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 71.3 | # 1 | ||
| College Biology | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 70.8 | # 1 | ||
| Astronomy | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 65.8 | # 1 | ||
| Elementary Mathematics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 33.6 | # 1 | ||
| Figure Of Speech Detection | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 52.7 | # 2 | ||
| Fantasy Reasoning | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 64.1 | # 2 | ||
| English Proverbs | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 57.6 | # 2 | ||
| Virology | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 47.0 | # 1 | ||
| Professional Medicine | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 64.0 | # 1 | ||
| Nutrition | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 69.9 | # 1 | ||
| Medical Genetics | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 69.0 | # 1 | ||
| Human Organs Senses Multiple Choice | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 84.8 | # 2 | ||
| Human Aging | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 66.4 | # 1 | ||
| College Medicine | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 60.1 | # 1 | ||
| Clinical Knowledge | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 67.2 | # 1 | ||
| Anatomy | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 56.3 | # 1 | ||
| Professional Accounting | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 44.3 | # 1 | ||
| Mathematical Induction | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 57.6 | # 1 | ||
| Formal Logic | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 35.7 | # 1 | ||
| Abstract Algebra | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 25.0 | # 1 | ||
| Presuppositions As NLI | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 34.0 | # 2 | ||
| Physical Intuition | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 59.7 | # 2 | ||
| Metaphor Boolean | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 59.3 | # 2 | ||
| Logical Args | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 59.1 | # 1 | ||
| Evaluating Information Essentiality | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 16.7 | # 2 | ||
| Epistemic Reasoning | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 56.4 | # 2 | ||
| Entailed Polarity | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 89.5 | # 2 | ||
| Analytic Entailment | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 53.0 | # 2 | ||
| World Religions | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 84.2 | # 1 | ||
| Professional Law | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 44.5 | # 1 | ||
| Prehistory | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 67.6 | # 1 | ||
| Philosophy | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 68.8 | # 1 | ||
| Marketing | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 83.3 | # 1 | ||
| Management | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 77.7 | # 1 | ||
| Logical Fallacies | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 72.4 | # 1 | ||
| Jurisprudence | BIG-bench | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 71.3 | # 1 | ||
| Word Sense Disambiguation | BIG-bench (Anachronisms) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 56.4 | # 2 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | BIG-bench (Causal Judgment) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 50.8 | # 8 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | BIG-bench (Date Understanding) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 44.1 | # 9 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | BIG-bench (Disambiguation QA) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 45.5 | # 5 | ||
| Logical Reasoning | BIG-bench (Formal Fallacies Syllogisms Negation) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 50.7 | # 9 | ||
| Memorization | BIG-bench (Hindu Knowledge) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 80 | # 2 | ||
| Multiple Choice Question Answering (MCQA) | BIG-bench (Hyperbaton) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 51.7 | # 9 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | BIG-bench (Known Unknowns) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 63.6 | # 3 | ||
| Logical Reasoning | BIG-bench (Logical Fallacy Detection) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 58.9 | # 2 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | BIG-bench (Logical Sequence) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 36.4 | # 2 | ||
| Logical Reasoning | BIG-bench (Logic Grid Puzzle) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 35.1 | # 4 | ||
| Multiple Choice Question Answering (MCQA) | BIG-bench (Movie Recommendation) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 50.5 | # 9 | ||
| Multiple Choice Question Answering (MCQA) | BIG-bench (Navigate) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 51.1 | # 5 | ||
| Multiple Choice Question Answering (MCQA) | BIG-bench (Novel Concepts) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 59.1 | # 4 | ||
| Logical Reasoning | BIG-bench (Penguins In A Table) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 40.6 | # 5 | ||
| Logical Reasoning | BIG-bench (Reasoning About Colored Objects) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 49.2 | # 4 | ||
| Multiple Choice Question Answering (MCQA) | BIG-bench (Ruin Names) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 38.6 | # 9 | ||
| Sarcasm Detection | BIG-bench (SNARKS) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 48.3 | # 8 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | BIG-bench (Sports Understanding) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 54.9 | # 6 | ||
| Logical Reasoning | BIG-bench (StrategyQA) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 61.0 | # 4 | ||
| Logical Reasoning | BIG-bench (Temporal Sequences) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 19.0 | # 9 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | BIG-bench (Winowhy) | Gopher-280B (few-shot, k=5) | Accuracy | 56.7 | # 4 | ||
| Language Modelling | Bookcorpus2 | Gopher | BPB | 0.741 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | Books3 | Gopher | BPB | 0.712 | # 1 | ||
| Question Answering | BoolQ | Gopher (zero-shot) | Accuracy | 79.3 | # 27 | ||
| Language Modelling | Curation Corpus | Gopher | BPB | 0.475 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | DM Mathematics | Gopher | BPB | 1.14 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | FreeLaw | Gopher | BPB | 0.513 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | GitHub | Gopher | BPB | 0.377 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | Gutenberg PG-19 | Gopher | BPB | 0.656 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | HackerNews | Gopher | BPB | 0.890 | # 1 | ||
| Sentence Completion | HellaSwag | Gopher 280B (0-shot) | Accuracy | 79.2 | # 42 | ||
| Multi-task Language Understanding | MMLU | Gopher 0.4B (5-shot) | Average (%) | 25.7 | # 102 | ||
| Multi-task Language Understanding | MMLU | Gopher 1.4B (5-shot) | Average (%) | 27.3 | # 95 | ||
| Multi-task Language Understanding | MMLU | Gopher 280B (5-shot) | Average (%) | 60.0 | # 50 | ||
| Multi-task Language Understanding | MMLU | Gopher 7.1B (5-shot) | Average (%) | 29.5 | # 90 | ||
| Question Answering | Natural Questions | Gopher (few-shot, k=64) | EM | 28.2 | # 30 | ||
| Language Modelling | NIH ExPorter | Gopher | BPB | 0.590 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | OpenSubtitles | Gopher | BPB | 0.899 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | OpenWebtext2 | Gopher | BPB | 0.677 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | PhilPapers | Gopher | BPB | 0.695 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | Pile CC | Gopher | BPB | 0.691 | # 1 | ||
| Question Answering | PIQA | Gopher 280B (0-shot) | Accuracy | 81.8 | # 20 | ||
| Language Modelling | PubMed Central | Gopher | BPB | 0.525 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | PubMed Cognitive Control Abstracts | Gopher | BPB | 0.577 | # 1 | ||
| Question Answering | SIQA | Gopher (zero-shot) | Accuracy | 50.6 | # 16 | ||
| Language Modelling | StackExchange | Gopher | BPB | 0.641 | # 1 | ||
| Question Answering | TruthfulQA | Gopher 280B (zero-shot, Our Prompt + Choices) | MC1 | 0.295 | # 8 | ||
| Question Answering | TruthfulQA | Gopher 1.4 (zero-shot, QA prompts) | MC1 | 0.23 | # 13 | ||
| Question Answering | TruthfulQA | Gopher 7.1 (zero-shot, QA prompts) | MC1 | 0.25 | # 11 | ||
| Question Answering | TruthfulQA | Gopher 280B (zero-shot, QA prompts) | MC1 | 0. 27 | # 24 | ||
| Question Answering | TruthfulQA | Gopher 1.4B (zero-shot, Our Prompt + Choices) | MC1 | 0.217 | # 16 | ||
| Question Answering | TruthfulQA | Gopher 7.1B (zero-shot, Our Prompt + Choices) | MC1 | 0.23 | # 13 | ||
| Language Modelling | Ubuntu IRC | Gopher | BPB | 1.09 | # 1 | ||
| Language Modelling | USPTO Backgrounds | Gopher | BPB | 0.546 | # 1 | ||
| Common Sense Reasoning | WinoGrande | Gopher 280B (0-shot) | Accuracy | 70.1 | # 37 |
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