1 code implementation • EMNLP 2021 • Sheng Shen, Zhewei Yao, Douwe Kiela, Kurt Keutzer, Michael Mahoney
Hidden within a one-layer randomly weighted Transformer, we find that subnetworks that can achieve 29. 45/17. 29 BLEU on IWSLT14/WMT14.
1 code implementation • NAACL 2022 • Jae Sung Park, Sheng Shen, Ali Farhadi, Trevor Darrell, Yejin Choi, Anna Rohrbach
We test the robustness of recent methods on the proposed automatic contrast sets, and compare them to additionally collected human-generated counterparts, to assess their effectiveness.
no code implementations • ICML 2020 • Zhuohan Li, Eric Wallace, Sheng Shen, Kevin Lin, Kurt Keutzer, Dan Klein, Joseph Gonzalez
Since hardware resources are limited, the objective of training deep learning models is typically to maximize accuracy subject to the time and memory constraints of training and inference.
1 code implementation • 23 Oct 2023 • Liangyu Chen, Bo Li, Sheng Shen, Jingkang Yang, Chunyuan Li, Kurt Keutzer, Trevor Darrell, Ziwei Liu
Visual reasoning requires multimodal perception and commonsense cognition of the world.
1 code implementation • 8 Oct 2023 • Jonathan Light, Min Cai, Sheng Shen, Ziniu Hu
In this paper, we explore the potential of Large Language Models (LLMs) Agents in playing the strategic social deduction game, Resistance Avalon.
no code implementations • 3 Oct 2023 • Bohan Zhai, Shijia Yang, Xiangchen Zhao, Chenfeng Xu, Sheng Shen, Dongdi Zhao, Kurt Keutzer, Manling Li, Tan Yan, Xiangjun Fan
To control such hallucinations, we further attribute the reliability of captioning to contextual knowledge (involving only contextually grounded objects) and parametric knowledge (containing inferred objects by the model).
no code implementations • 25 Sep 2023 • Zhiqing Sun, Sheng Shen, Shengcao Cao, Haotian Liu, Chunyuan Li, Yikang Shen, Chuang Gan, Liang-Yan Gui, Yu-Xiong Wang, Yiming Yang, Kurt Keutzer, Trevor Darrell
Large Multimodal Models (LMM) are built across modalities and the misalignment between two modalities can result in "hallucination", generating textual outputs that are not grounded by the multimodal information in context.
1 code implementation • 7 Aug 2023 • Xiao Liu, Hao Yu, Hanchen Zhang, Yifan Xu, Xuanyu Lei, Hanyu Lai, Yu Gu, Hangliang Ding, Kaiwen Men, Kejuan Yang, Shudan Zhang, Xiang Deng, Aohan Zeng, Zhengxiao Du, Chenhui Zhang, Sheng Shen, Tianjun Zhang, Yu Su, Huan Sun, Minlie Huang, Yuxiao Dong, Jie Tang
We present AgentBench, a multi-dimensional evolving benchmark that currently consists of 8 distinct environments to assess LLM-as-Agent's reasoning and decision-making abilities in a multi-turn open-ended generation setting.
1 code implementation • 13 Jun 2023 • Sehoon Kim, Coleman Hooper, Amir Gholami, Zhen Dong, Xiuyu Li, Sheng Shen, Michael W. Mahoney, Kurt Keutzer
When applied to the LLaMA models, our 3-bit quantization significantly reduces the perplexity gap from the FP16 baseline by up to 2. 1x as compared to the state-of-the-art methods with the same memory requirement.
no code implementations • 2 Jun 2023 • Chi Liu, Tianqing Zhu, Sheng Shen, Wanlei Zhou
GAN-generated image detection now becomes the first line of defense against the malicious uses of machine-synthesized image manipulations such as deepfakes.
no code implementations • 24 May 2023 • Sheng Shen, Le Hou, Yanqi Zhou, Nan Du, Shayne Longpre, Jason Wei, Hyung Won Chung, Barret Zoph, William Fedus, Xinyun Chen, Tu Vu, Yuexin Wu, Wuyang Chen, Albert Webson, Yunxuan Li, Vincent Zhao, Hongkun Yu, Kurt Keutzer, Trevor Darrell, Denny Zhou
Sparse Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) is a neural architecture design that can be utilized to add learnable parameters to Large Language Models (LLMs) without increasing inference cost.
1 code implementation • 1 May 2023 • Alexander Wan, Eric Wallace, Sheng Shen, Dan Klein
In this work, we show that adversaries can contribute poison examples to these datasets, allowing them to manipulate model predictions whenever a desired trigger phrase appears in the input.
no code implementations • 13 Mar 2023 • Sheng Shen, Zhewei Yao, Chunyuan Li, Trevor Darrell, Kurt Keutzer, Yuxiong He
The field of natural language processing (NLP) has made significant strides in recent years, particularly in the development of large-scale vision-language models (VLMs).
no code implementations • ICCV 2023 • Sheng Shen, Huanjing Yue, Jingyu Yang
Therefore, we propose a Dec-Adapter, a pioneering entropy-efficient transfer learning module for the decoder to bridge natural image and screen content compression.
no code implementations • 31 Dec 2022 • Yunjiao Lei, Dayong Ye, Sheng Shen, Yulei Sui, Tianqing Zhu, Wanlei Zhou
A large number of studies have focused on these security and privacy problems in reinforcement learning.
1 code implementation • 21 Nov 2022 • Sheng Shen, Shijia Yang, Tianjun Zhang, Bohan Zhai, Joseph E. Gonzalez, Kurt Keutzer, Trevor Darrell
Specifically, (i) we demonstrate the effectiveness of learning a single transferable prompt from multiple source tasks to initialize the prompt for each target task; (ii) we show many target tasks can benefit each other from sharing prompt vectors and thus can be jointly learned via multitask prompt tuning.
3 code implementations • 9 Nov 2022 • BigScience Workshop, :, Teven Le Scao, Angela Fan, Christopher Akiki, Ellie Pavlick, Suzana Ilić, Daniel Hesslow, Roman Castagné, Alexandra Sasha Luccioni, François Yvon, Matthias Gallé, Jonathan Tow, Alexander M. Rush, Stella Biderman, Albert Webson, Pawan Sasanka Ammanamanchi, Thomas Wang, Benoît Sagot, Niklas Muennighoff, Albert Villanova del Moral, Olatunji Ruwase, Rachel Bawden, Stas Bekman, Angelina McMillan-Major, Iz Beltagy, Huu Nguyen, Lucile Saulnier, Samson Tan, Pedro Ortiz Suarez, Victor Sanh, Hugo Laurençon, Yacine Jernite, Julien Launay, Margaret Mitchell, Colin Raffel, Aaron Gokaslan, Adi Simhi, Aitor Soroa, Alham Fikri Aji, Amit Alfassy, Anna Rogers, Ariel Kreisberg Nitzav, Canwen Xu, Chenghao Mou, Chris Emezue, Christopher Klamm, Colin Leong, Daniel van Strien, David Ifeoluwa Adelani, Dragomir Radev, Eduardo González Ponferrada, Efrat Levkovizh, Ethan Kim, Eyal Bar Natan, Francesco De Toni, Gérard Dupont, Germán Kruszewski, Giada Pistilli, Hady Elsahar, Hamza Benyamina, Hieu Tran, Ian Yu, Idris Abdulmumin, Isaac Johnson, Itziar Gonzalez-Dios, Javier de la Rosa, Jenny Chim, Jesse Dodge, Jian Zhu, Jonathan Chang, Jörg Frohberg, Joseph Tobing, Joydeep Bhattacharjee, Khalid Almubarak, Kimbo Chen, Kyle Lo, Leandro von Werra, Leon Weber, Long Phan, Loubna Ben allal, Ludovic Tanguy, Manan Dey, Manuel Romero Muñoz, Maraim Masoud, María Grandury, Mario Šaško, Max Huang, Maximin Coavoux, Mayank Singh, Mike Tian-Jian Jiang, Minh Chien Vu, Mohammad A. Jauhar, Mustafa Ghaleb, Nishant Subramani, Nora Kassner, Nurulaqilla Khamis, Olivier Nguyen, Omar Espejel, Ona de Gibert, Paulo Villegas, Peter Henderson, Pierre Colombo, Priscilla Amuok, Quentin Lhoest, Rheza Harliman, Rishi Bommasani, Roberto Luis López, Rui Ribeiro, Salomey Osei, Sampo Pyysalo, Sebastian Nagel, Shamik Bose, Shamsuddeen Hassan Muhammad, Shanya Sharma, Shayne Longpre, Somaieh Nikpoor, Stanislav Silberberg, Suhas Pai, Sydney Zink, Tiago Timponi Torrent, Timo Schick, Tristan Thrush, Valentin Danchev, Vassilina Nikoulina, Veronika Laippala, Violette Lepercq, Vrinda Prabhu, Zaid Alyafeai, Zeerak Talat, Arun Raja, Benjamin Heinzerling, Chenglei Si, Davut Emre Taşar, Elizabeth Salesky, Sabrina J. Mielke, Wilson Y. Lee, Abheesht Sharma, Andrea Santilli, Antoine Chaffin, Arnaud Stiegler, Debajyoti Datta, Eliza Szczechla, Gunjan Chhablani, Han Wang, Harshit Pandey, Hendrik Strobelt, Jason Alan Fries, Jos Rozen, Leo Gao, Lintang Sutawika, M Saiful Bari, Maged S. Al-shaibani, Matteo Manica, Nihal Nayak, Ryan Teehan, Samuel Albanie, Sheng Shen, Srulik Ben-David, Stephen H. Bach, Taewoon Kim, Tali Bers, Thibault Fevry, Trishala Neeraj, Urmish Thakker, Vikas Raunak, Xiangru Tang, Zheng-Xin Yong, Zhiqing Sun, Shaked Brody, Yallow Uri, Hadar Tojarieh, Adam Roberts, Hyung Won Chung, Jaesung Tae, Jason Phang, Ofir Press, Conglong Li, Deepak Narayanan, Hatim Bourfoune, Jared Casper, Jeff Rasley, Max Ryabinin, Mayank Mishra, Minjia Zhang, Mohammad Shoeybi, Myriam Peyrounette, Nicolas Patry, Nouamane Tazi, Omar Sanseviero, Patrick von Platen, Pierre Cornette, Pierre François Lavallée, Rémi Lacroix, Samyam Rajbhandari, Sanchit Gandhi, Shaden Smith, Stéphane Requena, Suraj Patil, Tim Dettmers, Ahmed Baruwa, Amanpreet Singh, Anastasia Cheveleva, Anne-Laure Ligozat, Arjun Subramonian, Aurélie Névéol, Charles Lovering, Dan Garrette, Deepak Tunuguntla, Ehud Reiter, Ekaterina Taktasheva, Ekaterina Voloshina, Eli Bogdanov, Genta Indra Winata, Hailey Schoelkopf, Jan-Christoph Kalo, Jekaterina Novikova, Jessica Zosa Forde, Jordan Clive, Jungo Kasai, Ken Kawamura, Liam Hazan, Marine Carpuat, Miruna Clinciu, Najoung Kim, Newton Cheng, Oleg Serikov, Omer Antverg, Oskar van der Wal, Rui Zhang, Ruochen Zhang, Sebastian Gehrmann, Shachar Mirkin, Shani Pais, Tatiana Shavrina, Thomas Scialom, Tian Yun, Tomasz Limisiewicz, Verena Rieser, Vitaly Protasov, Vladislav Mikhailov, Yada Pruksachatkun, Yonatan Belinkov, Zachary Bamberger, Zdeněk Kasner, Alice Rueda, Amanda Pestana, Amir Feizpour, Ammar Khan, Amy Faranak, Ana Santos, Anthony Hevia, Antigona Unldreaj, Arash Aghagol, Arezoo Abdollahi, Aycha Tammour, Azadeh HajiHosseini, Bahareh Behroozi, Benjamin Ajibade, Bharat Saxena, Carlos Muñoz Ferrandis, Daniel McDuff, Danish Contractor, David Lansky, Davis David, Douwe Kiela, Duong A. Nguyen, Edward Tan, Emi Baylor, Ezinwanne Ozoani, Fatima Mirza, Frankline Ononiwu, Habib Rezanejad, Hessie Jones, Indrani Bhattacharya, Irene Solaiman, Irina Sedenko, Isar Nejadgholi, Jesse Passmore, Josh Seltzer, Julio Bonis Sanz, Livia Dutra, Mairon Samagaio, Maraim Elbadri, Margot Mieskes, Marissa Gerchick, Martha Akinlolu, Michael McKenna, Mike Qiu, Muhammed Ghauri, Mykola Burynok, Nafis Abrar, Nazneen Rajani, Nour Elkott, Nour Fahmy, Olanrewaju Samuel, Ran An, Rasmus Kromann, Ryan Hao, Samira Alizadeh, Sarmad Shubber, Silas Wang, Sourav Roy, Sylvain Viguier, Thanh Le, Tobi Oyebade, Trieu Le, Yoyo Yang, Zach Nguyen, Abhinav Ramesh Kashyap, Alfredo Palasciano, Alison Callahan, Anima Shukla, Antonio Miranda-Escalada, Ayush Singh, Benjamin Beilharz, Bo wang, Caio Brito, Chenxi Zhou, Chirag Jain, Chuxin Xu, Clémentine Fourrier, Daniel León Periñán, Daniel Molano, Dian Yu, Enrique Manjavacas, Fabio Barth, Florian Fuhrimann, Gabriel Altay, Giyaseddin Bayrak, Gully Burns, Helena U. Vrabec, Imane Bello, Ishani Dash, Jihyun Kang, John Giorgi, Jonas Golde, Jose David Posada, Karthik Rangasai Sivaraman, Lokesh Bulchandani, Lu Liu, Luisa Shinzato, Madeleine Hahn de Bykhovetz, Maiko Takeuchi, Marc Pàmies, Maria A Castillo, Marianna Nezhurina, Mario Sänger, Matthias Samwald, Michael Cullan, Michael Weinberg, Michiel De Wolf, Mina Mihaljcic, Minna Liu, Moritz Freidank, Myungsun Kang, Natasha Seelam, Nathan Dahlberg, Nicholas Michio Broad, Nikolaus Muellner, Pascale Fung, Patrick Haller, Ramya Chandrasekhar, Renata Eisenberg, Robert Martin, Rodrigo Canalli, Rosaline Su, Ruisi Su, Samuel Cahyawijaya, Samuele Garda, Shlok S Deshmukh, Shubhanshu Mishra, Sid Kiblawi, Simon Ott, Sinee Sang-aroonsiri, Srishti Kumar, Stefan Schweter, Sushil Bharati, Tanmay Laud, Théo Gigant, Tomoya Kainuma, Wojciech Kusa, Yanis Labrak, Yash Shailesh Bajaj, Yash Venkatraman, Yifan Xu, Yingxin Xu, Yu Xu, Zhe Tan, Zhongli Xie, Zifan Ye, Mathilde Bras, Younes Belkada, Thomas Wolf
Large language models (LLMs) have been shown to be able to perform new tasks based on a few demonstrations or natural language instructions.
1 code implementation • 3 Nov 2022 • Niklas Muennighoff, Thomas Wang, Lintang Sutawika, Adam Roberts, Stella Biderman, Teven Le Scao, M Saiful Bari, Sheng Shen, Zheng-Xin Yong, Hailey Schoelkopf, Xiangru Tang, Dragomir Radev, Alham Fikri Aji, Khalid Almubarak, Samuel Albanie, Zaid Alyafeai, Albert Webson, Edward Raff, Colin Raffel
We find finetuning large multilingual language models on English tasks with English prompts allows for task generalization to non-English languages that appear only in the pretraining corpus.
Ranked #1 on
Zero-Shot Learning
on Story Cloze
1 code implementation • 27 Oct 2022 • Teven Le Scao, Thomas Wang, Daniel Hesslow, Lucile Saulnier, Stas Bekman, M Saiful Bari, Stella Biderman, Hady Elsahar, Niklas Muennighoff, Jason Phang, Ofir Press, Colin Raffel, Victor Sanh, Sheng Shen, Lintang Sutawika, Jaesung Tae, Zheng Xin Yong, Julien Launay, Iz Beltagy
All our models and code are open-sourced at https://huggingface. co/bigscience .
no code implementations • 17 Oct 2022 • Sheng Shen, Huanjing Yue, Jingyu Yang, Kun Li
Specifically, we propose a modulation based transformer as the upsampler, which modulates the pixel features in discrete space via a periodic nonlinear function to generate features for continuous pixels.
2 code implementations • 20 Apr 2022 • Sheng Shen, Chunyuan Li, Xiaowei Hu, Jianwei Yang, Yujia Xie, Pengchuan Zhang, Zhe Gan, Lijuan Wang, Lu Yuan, Ce Liu, Kurt Keutzer, Trevor Darrell, Anna Rohrbach, Jianfeng Gao
We propose K-LITE, a simple strategy to leverage external knowledge for building transferable visual systems: In training, it enriches entities in text with WordNet and Wiktionary knowledge, leading to an efficient and scalable approach to learning image representations that uses knowledge about the visual concepts.
no code implementations • 13 Mar 2022 • Dayong Ye, Sheng Shen, Tianqing Zhu, Bo Liu, Wanlei Zhou
The experimental results show the method to be an effective and timely defense against both membership inference and model inversion attacks with no reduction in accuracy.
1 code implementation • 11 Mar 2022 • Sheng Shen, Pete Walsh, Kurt Keutzer, Jesse Dodge, Matthew Peters, Iz Beltagy
As an alternative, we consider a staged training setup that begins with a small model and incrementally increases the amount of compute used for training by applying a "growth operator" to increase the model depth and width.
1 code implementation • NeurIPS 2021 • Jingyu Yang, Sheng Shen, Huanjing Yue, Kun Li
Nowadays, there is an explosive growth of screen contents due to the wide application of screen sharing, remote cooperation, and online education.
1 code implementation • 27 Oct 2021 • Xuanlin Li, Brandon Trabucco, Dong Huk Park, Michael Luo, Sheng Shen, Trevor Darrell, Yang Gao
Permutations then serve as target generation orders for training an insertion-based Transformer language model.
7 code implementations • ICLR 2022 • Victor Sanh, Albert Webson, Colin Raffel, Stephen H. Bach, Lintang Sutawika, Zaid Alyafeai, Antoine Chaffin, Arnaud Stiegler, Teven Le Scao, Arun Raja, Manan Dey, M Saiful Bari, Canwen Xu, Urmish Thakker, Shanya Sharma Sharma, Eliza Szczechla, Taewoon Kim, Gunjan Chhablani, Nihal Nayak, Debajyoti Datta, Jonathan Chang, Mike Tian-Jian Jiang, Han Wang, Matteo Manica, Sheng Shen, Zheng Xin Yong, Harshit Pandey, Rachel Bawden, Thomas Wang, Trishala Neeraj, Jos Rozen, Abheesht Sharma, Andrea Santilli, Thibault Fevry, Jason Alan Fries, Ryan Teehan, Tali Bers, Stella Biderman, Leo Gao, Thomas Wolf, Alexander M. Rush
Large language models have recently been shown to attain reasonable zero-shot generalization on a diverse set of tasks (Brown et al., 2020).
1 code implementation • 8 Sep 2021 • Sheng Shen, Zhewei Yao, Douwe Kiela, Kurt Keutzer, Michael W. Mahoney
Hidden within a one-layer randomly weighted Transformer, we find that subnetworks that can achieve 29. 45/17. 29 BLEU on IWSLT14/WMT14.
4 code implementations • 13 Jul 2021 • Sheng Shen, Liunian Harold Li, Hao Tan, Mohit Bansal, Anna Rohrbach, Kai-Wei Chang, Zhewei Yao, Kurt Keutzer
Most existing Vision-and-Language (V&L) models rely on pre-trained visual encoders, using a relatively small set of manually-annotated data (as compared to web-crawled data), to perceive the visual world.
Ranked #4 on
Vision and Language Navigation
on RxR
(using extra training data)
1 code implementation • 2 Jul 2021 • Sehoon Kim, Sheng Shen, David Thorsley, Amir Gholami, Woosuk Kwon, Joseph Hassoun, Kurt Keutzer
We extensively test the performance of LTP on GLUE tasks and show that our method outperforms the prior state-of-the-art token pruning methods by up to ~2. 5% higher accuracy with the same amount of FLOPs.
1 code implementation • 30 May 2021 • Zhewei Yao, Xiaoxia Wu, Linjian Ma, Sheng Shen, Kurt Keutzer, Michael W. Mahoney, Yuxiong He
Moreover, in order to reduce hyperparameter tuning, a novel adaptive regularization coefficient is deployed to control the regularization penalty adaptively.
1 code implementation • ICLR 2021 • Xuanlin Li, Brandon Trabucco, Dong Huk Park, Michael Luo, Sheng Shen, Trevor Darrell, Yang Gao
One strategy to recover this information is to decode both the content and location of tokens.
no code implementations • ACL 2021 • Sheng Shen, Alexei Baevski, Ari S. Morcos, Kurt Keutzer, Michael Auli, Douwe Kiela
We demonstrate that transformers obtain impressive performance even when some of the layers are randomly initialized and never updated.
no code implementations • 19 Oct 2020 • Sheng Shen, Tianqing Zhu, Di wu, Wei Wang, Wanlei Zhou
Federated learning is an improved version of distributed machine learning that further offloads operations which would usually be performed by a central server.
Distributed, Parallel, and Cluster Computing
1 code implementation • EMNLP 2020 • Qinxin Wang, Hao Tan, Sheng Shen, Michael W. Mahoney, Zhewei Yao
Phrase localization is a task that studies the mapping from textual phrases to regions of an image.
1 code implementation • NAACL 2021 • Yang Liu, Sheng Shen, Mirella Lapata
In this paper we apply self-knowledge distillation to text summarization which we argue can alleviate problems with maximum-likelihood training on single reference and noisy datasets.
no code implementations • 16 Aug 2020 • Dayong Ye, Tianqing Zhu, Sheng Shen, Wanlei Zhou, Philip S. Yu
To the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first to apply differential privacy to the field of multi-agent planning as a means of preserving the privacy of agents for logistic-like problems.
3 code implementations • 1 Jun 2020 • Zhewei Yao, Amir Gholami, Sheng Shen, Mustafa Mustafa, Kurt Keutzer, Michael W. Mahoney
We introduce ADAHESSIAN, a second order stochastic optimization algorithm which dynamically incorporates the curvature of the loss function via ADAptive estimates of the HESSIAN.
1 code implementation • ICML 2020 • Sheng Shen, Zhewei Yao, Amir Gholami, Michael W. Mahoney, Kurt Keutzer
To address this, we propose Power Normalization (PN), a novel normalization scheme that resolves this issue by (i) relaxing zero-mean normalization in BN, (ii) incorporating a running quadratic mean instead of per batch statistics to stabilize fluctuations, and (iii) using an approximate backpropagation for incorporating the running statistics in the forward pass.
Ranked #12 on
Machine Translation
on WMT2014 English-German
2 code implementations • 26 Feb 2020 • Zhuohan Li, Eric Wallace, Sheng Shen, Kevin Lin, Kurt Keutzer, Dan Klein, Joseph E. Gonzalez
Since hardware resources are limited, the objective of training deep learning models is typically to maximize accuracy subject to the time and memory constraints of training and inference.
no code implementations • 12 Sep 2019 • Sheng Shen, Zhen Dong, Jiayu Ye, Linjian Ma, Zhewei Yao, Amir Gholami, Michael W. Mahoney, Kurt Keutzer
In particular, we propose a new group-wise quantization scheme, and we use a Hessian based mix-precision method to compress the model further.
2 code implementations • NAACL 2019 • David Bamman, Sejal Popat, Sheng Shen
We present a new dataset comprised of 210, 532 tokens evenly drawn from 100 different English-language literary texts annotated for ACE entity categories (person, location, geo-political entity, facility, organization, and vehicle).
2 code implementations • NAACL 2019 • Sheng Shen, Daniel Fried, Jacob Andreas, Dan Klein
We improve the informativeness of models for conditional text generation using techniques from computational pragmatics.
Ranked #1 on
Data-to-Text Generation
on E2E NLG Challenge
Abstractive Text Summarization
Conditional Text Generation
+3
no code implementations • 1 Nov 2018 • Sheng Shen, Yaliang Li, Nan Du, Xian Wu, Yusheng Xie, Shen Ge, Tao Yang, Kai Wang, Xingzheng Liang, Wei Fan
Question answering (QA) has achieved promising progress recently.
1 code implementation • 7 Jun 2018 • Zhenpeng Chen, Sheng Shen, Ziniu Hu, Xuan Lu, Qiaozhu Mei, Xuanzhe Liu
To tackle this problem, cross-lingual sentiment classification approaches aim to transfer knowledge learned from one language that has abundant labeled examples (i. e., the source language, usually English) to another language with fewer labels (i. e., the target language).